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Kit 




Book. 



Elementary Psychology. 






BY 



AMOS M? KELLOGG, A.M., 

CDITOR OF THE SCHOOL JOURNAL AND THE TEACHERS 1 INSTITUTE ; AUTHOR OF 
"SCHOOL MANAGEMENT," " LIFE OF PESTALOZZI," ETC. 








NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO, 






K* 






Copyright, 1894, 

E. L, KELLOGG & CO., 

NEW YORK. 



ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY. 



*Sf 



PREFACE. 



An attempt is made in this little volume to exhibit 
the processes by which we know, by employing famil- 
iar examples and illustrations. It proposes Psychol- 
ogy by self-observation and experiment ; it aims to 
centre the attention of the student upon the process 
itself, and get him to observe that ; over against 
this is the commoner method of setting him to learn 
definitions. The result of the use of most books on 
the subject is to leave merely a residuum of defini- 
tions. In this book the definitions are few and far 
between. 

The student must have his attention repeatedly 
called to the process of knowing in general, which 
involves somewhat the philosophy of Psychology. 
There is an outside world that has qualities that 
cause effects (images) in the inner world (the mind). 
These images are elaborated, arranged, related, and 
built up, so that there is an organized inner world 
that represents the outer world and by which it is 
understood and practically administered,, This rela- 
tion, elaboration, transformation, construction, and 

3 



4 Preface. 

organization is like the similar processes carried on 
in the oak-tree — automatic and self-operating. There 
is one force or power that does the perceiving and 
conceiving and thinking : these are simply different 
stages in the one operation of knowing. These 
points are briefly alluded to in various paragraphs, 
but will need to be looked at with an effort for unity 
and wholeness. 

The increasing number of students desirous of 
obtaining clear elementary ideas* concerning the 
operations of the mind, as it is employed on a famil- 
iar object, impelled the writer, though pressed with 
other labors, to undertake the preparation of a small 
volume. The small size proposed made it needful 
to study what to leave out rather than what to put 
in. 

This book will undoubtedly awaken in its students 
the desire to read other books. These, published by 
E. L. Kellogg & Co., are specially recommended : 

Alleys Mind Studies, for Young Teachers. 

Welch's Talks on Psychology. 

Welch's Teachers' Psychology. 

Rooper's Apperception, or " A Pot of Green Feathers." 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introductory 7 

The Sensation Stage 11 

The Perception Stage . . 20 

The Conception Stage 29 

The Thinking Stage 35 

The Will. 43 

The Feelings 44 

Notes 47 

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ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

1. We are conscious the mind is capable of acting, 
and that its acting results in knowing. For example, 
I place some fruits in a dish and show them to you. 
You know they are oranges. You are conscious that 
your mind acted, and that the knowledge you gained 
was the result of the action. 

2. Suppose, instead of a class exercise, we have a 
birthday celebration, and some fruits are brought in 
and placed on the table. You know they are oranges ; 
you desire to taste them ; you decide you will do so. 
You are conscious you had these mental states. By 
reflection you see that these states differ from each 
other ; that to know they were oranges, to desire 
them, to determine to take them, are different mental 
acts. 

3. In this volume the operation of the mind in 
knowing will be considered mainly ; a few remarks 

7 



8 Elementary Psychology. 

only will be made concerning its operation in desir- 
ing and determining or choosing, 

4. You know what the mind does by your con- 
sciousness ; thus you say, " I am conscious I see an 
orange/' Consciousness is the being-aware by the 
mind of its acts and states. 

5. Mental Phenomena are as Common as Phys- 
ical Phenomena. — When w r e speak of ourselves, 
except our bodily doings, we describe some mental 
act, we tell how we feel, what we think, what we 
have decided to do. Longfellow describes a state 
of mind in " The Bridge.'' And I thought — 

" How often, oh how often ! 

In the days that had gone by, 
I had stood on that bridge at midnight, 
And gazed on that wave and sky." 

6. Our interest in people is concerning what they 
think ; we desire to know their thoughts. We know 
people as we know their thoughts. " As he thinketh 
in his heart, so is he," the Bible says. 

Although constantly busy with their mental states, 
it is difficult for most people to think about them 
and notice their likeness to other mental states, and 
observe how one mental state follows another, etc. 

The science of Psychology is an arrangement of 
our knowledge of our mental acts and states. Ordi- 
narily we try to see what the mental state or act is ; 
as psychologists we try to see what kind of state or 
act is in the consciousness. 

7. If we observe a young child we see it place an 



Introductory. 9 

ivory ring in its mouth, or grasp after a shining 
object — a spoon, for example. It finds that the spoon 
struck on the table or dish will produce a noise. It 
goes on in a most active way to ascertain by experi- 
ment the capabilities of the spoon. At a later stage 
it learns that a potato is prepared for food by boiling 
or roasting ;. at a still later stage it learns that the 
potato grows in the ground, and that other vege- 
tables are produced in the same way. 

8. If we observe an adult, we see that he has 
gathered a great many facts into more or less coher- 
ent wholes ; for example : that the spoon is made of 
silver, which is a metal and has a certain specific 
gravity, etc. ; that the potato belongs to a certain 
group of the Nightshade family, along with the 
tomato, tobacco, belladonna plants. So we conclude 
that the action of the mind is evidently to gather 
knowledge into wholes ; this may be stated to be the 
law of knowing. 

9. This book contains a statement of the main 
processes of the mind in knowing. To take up the 
study of psychology we turn our attention to mental 
phenomena ; we observe the processes by which the 
mind knows* In using the term knowing, more is 
meant by the term than when I say that I know a 
certain fruit is an orange. If a plant is shown me 
and I observe that it is gamopetalous, has alternate 
leaves and its corolla plicate in the bud, I know it is 
one of a great family ; I know it in its relations, in 
its wholeness. The knowing power takes the ele- 
ments furnished by observation and arranges them 



io Elementary Psychology. 

so that we are able to comprehend the object in its 
relations. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is necessary to knowing ? (Sec. i.) 

Exemplify the three states. (2.) 

What state is considered in this book? (3.) 

Exemplify consciousness. (4.) 

Exemplify psychological phenomena. (5.) 

How is the science of psychology constructed ? (6.) 

Show difference between child and adult. (7.) $.) 

Exemplify knowing. (9.) 



The Sensation Stage. 1 1 



THE SENSATION STAGE. 

10. Obtaining Sensations. — Our knowledge be- 
gins in the senses. For example : I show you an 
orange ; you take it in your hand ; now, if I watch 
you closely I shall perceive that your mind seems to 
operate on the something that you obtained by feel- 
ing of the orange, by observing its appearance, by 
inhaling its fragrance and by tasting of it. It is per- 
ceptible that there were effects produced on your 
hands, eyes, nose, and tongue, and that you were 
mentally at work upon these effects. It is plain that 
after seeing, touching, tasting, hearing, and smelling 
of objects something in the object affected the mind 
and that the mind operates on this something. 

11. How Sensations are Obtained. — I place an 
orange before you on the table ; you turn your eyes 
to it, and see that it is round and that it is yellow ; 
you apply your mouth to it and find that it is sweet ; 
you bring it to your nose and ascertain it has fra- 
grance ; you press your hand upon it and determine 
it is rough ; you snap it with your finger and find it 
gives forth a sound. You have five ways by which 
the qualities of the orange reach your mind : by 
your eyes, by your tongue, by your nose, by your 
ears, by your touch. 

12. There must be effects on the senses to start 
with. If you doubt the fruit to be an orange, you 



r 2 Elementary Psychology. 

smell of it again, you taste of it again, then on what 
the senses bring in the mental powers proceed to 
operate. So there are two stages : (i) The in- 
bringing by the senses ; (2) The working upon and 
the working over the sense-products. 

13. Of Sensations. — We learn from physiologists 
that there is a lens in the eye and that the rays of 
light from the orange cause an image to be formed 
on the optic nerve which is spread over the back 
part of the eye, which is called the retina. When the 
image of the orange falls upon the retina it causes 
an impression, and this impression on the retina is 
carried along the optic nerve to the brain, causing 
an effect, a sensation. This sensation the mind be- 
comes conscious of ; it is material the mental powers 
can operate upon. 

14. There is a nerve in the mouth that is impressed 
by the juice of the orange ; this impression is con- 
veyed along a nerve to the brain, where it becomes a 
sensation of taste ; it is an effect of a quality in the 
juice ; this effect on the nerve is an impression ; in 
the mind it is a sensation. 

The nerve in the nose, in the ear, in the hand, each 
also were acted on by the qualities in the orange ; 
each received an impression ; these impressions 
coming to the brain become sensations in the mind ; 
these sensations represent qualities in the orange ; 
the mind knew these qualities existed in the orange. 

15. There are five ways in which the outer world 
may obtain access to the mind — through the eye, 
the ear, the tongue, the nose, and the surface of the 



The Sensation Stage. 13 

body ; the outer world can produce sensations of 
five different kinds in the mind, and thus represent 
itself. It is the qualities of objects that cause effects 
on the inner world of the mind, not the objects 
themselves. 

16. The impression on the nerve in the eye, hand, 
or tongue is the touch of the external world ; it is 
the effect of the external world. The nerve is 
planned to receive and transmit the impression. A 
sensation follows the impression ; it is a mental state. 
A sensation is a mental state produced by an impres- 
sion on a sense-nerve. As you hear and recognize 
the knock of a friend at the door, so does the mind 
recognize the touches of the external world ; a sen- 
sation follows each of them. 

17. The impression produced on the eye by the 
orange becomes a different sensation in the brain 
from that which comes through the tongue, nose, 
ear, or finger. Smell of the orange ; touch it : can 
you compare these sensations? The nerve of the 
eye is planned to receive impressions pertaining to 
form and color ; the nose, those relating to fragrance. 
Many objects can produce five sensations in the 
brain. 

18. We conclude then 

(1) That the different qualities possessed by the 
outer world can impart an influence to the mind 
through the nerves going from the eye, the ear, the 
nose, the tongue, and fingers; and, 

(2) That the mind starts on its course of knowing 



i4 Elementary Psychology. 

by dealing with the sensations these different quali- 
ties produce. 

The beginning is with a quality — sweetness, for 
example ; this is in the object. This sweetness pro- 
duces an impression on the nerve ; this impression 
on the nerve coming to the brain produces a mental 
state, a sensation. The quality differs from the 
impression ; the impression differs from the sensa- 
tion. These sensations become the foundation stuff 
for knowledge ; they are the raw materials out of 
which knowledge is constructed. 

19. Attending to Sensations. — The quality in 
the object, as we have seen, produces a sensation in 
the mind ; but it does not drop into it as a pebble 
drops into a box. Let us follow the sensation. 

I give you each a piece of orange ; you taste it ; 
you are conscious your mind has taken hold of some- 
thing that was caused by the juice on your tongue. 
But more, you are conscious that your mind was 
alert, or ready to be affected. For example, hold the 
piece of orange in your hand a few inches from your 
nose. I want you to be ready when I say " Smell 
of the orange M to do so. Are you not conscious of 
the fact that your mind is directed towards what 
may come in on the nerve from the nose? — that it 
is ready to seize on the sensation when it enters? 

You are conscious, too, that you made some effort 
to cause your mind to be fixed on the smell expected. 
You are conscious of a purpose in the matter. You 
can compel the mental power to select and to dwell 
upon a sensation ; this is termed cittcntion. You 



The Sensation Stage. 15 

employ the will, the determining power in the 
matter (see paragraph 2). 

20. Again : I cut an orange in pieces and give 
each a piece ; suppose that as you place the piece in 
your mouth some one enters the room and com- 
municates some very exciting fact — as that some 
one you knew has met with an accident. After he 
is gone I ask you as to the taste of the orange and 
you are unable to state whether there was anything 
peculiar in its flavor ; some are undecided as to 
whether they tasted it at all. 

But there must have been an impression on the 
taste-nerve, and a sensation must have followed the 
impression. Evidently the sensation was not drawn 
out of the throng and appropriated or added to the 
mental stock. To do this requires a mental effort, 
requires attention. 

You ride in a car : the people in the car, in the 
street, the horses — all produce impressions that in 
turn become* sensations ; you return perhaps, only 
remembering you met a certain single individual ; 
your mind selected one sensation out of thousands ; 
it attended to that, as we say ; that one was incor- 
porated with your previous mental stock ; the rest 
were neglected, were dissipated. 

21. Suppose you take a basket and go to the 
orange-tree ; it is loaded with luscious fruit. You 
see one and grasp it and put it in the basket, then 
another and another. You pass by hundreds. So 
it is with sensations : thousands throng in upon the 



1 6 Elementary Psychology. 

mind ; it attends to a few ; the rest are as if they 
had never entered. 

22. Illustrations. — I may be reading a book and 
not notice that you speak to me. The sensation 
caused by your voice was not attended to by my 
mind: it was attending to some other sensation. 
You speak again, and my mind leaves the sensation 
that comes from the book and applies itself to that 
which came from your voice. 

Again : I am talking to you ; you desire to hear 
what I say ; some one enters the door and speaks to 
another, but you compel attention to the sensation 
that my voice produces in your mind. In this case 
your mind does as you direct it. While, therefore, 
attention is usually automatic in its operation (that 
is, it centres itself without an act of the will on the 
sensation), it may be compelled to centre itself as 
the will decides. This means that, while attention 
is largely involuntary, it may be also voluntary {volo> 
I will). ' 

23. We conclude, then, (1) that the mind has a 
power to select and add to its stock from the sensa- 
tions that throng in upon it ; (2) that the selection is 
caused by the importunity of, or the interest in, the 
impression ; (3) that the mind can, in part at least, 
compel the selection of some particular sensation. 

24. It is apparent from what has been said that 
the mind may take an interest in its acts. This 
means there is a feeling side to all mental operations. 

While this book aims to discuss the knowing 
operation, it must constantly be borne in mind that 




The Sensation Stage. 17 

the feeling or interest side actively exists. As when 
I look at one side of a book, the other side is as 
important, though not then being inspected; so, in 
considering the knowing side of the mind, it must 
be remembered that the feeling side constitutes a 
most important side or part of the mind. (See 
74-80.) 

It is also apparent that the will 
side of the mind is being con- 
stantly exercised. If I know, it 
is because I choose or will to 
know ; I take an interest too in 
the knowing. The whole mind is employed. 

25. Retaining Sensations. — " What was it I laid 
on the table yesterday ?" 

"An orange." 

" What was its color ?" 

"Yellow." 

These answers show .that the sensations produced 
in your mind by the orange left something that rep- 
resents them. It is plain that your mind has the 
power to gain and hold representatives of qualities 
of things. We have a power to gain knowledge and 
to retain it. Suppose I had introduced twelve per- 
sons to you yesterday. Would you have remem- 
bered the names of all of them ? If, as I introduced 
these twelve persons to you in succession, Mr. Jones 
had smiled very pleasantly, you would all have re- 
membered him. You would remember him because 
you were interested. Then, again, if I had charged 
you to remember Mr. Smith when he was introduced, 



1 8 Elementary Psychology. 

you would have done so. You would remember him 
because you willed that your memory should do so. 
(See sections I and 19.) 

26. From this we conclude — 

(1) That the mind has a remembering or retain- 
ing power which it exerts involuntarily. You did 
not try to remember that an orange was discussed 
yesterday. 

(2) Interest has much to do with remembering; 
it caused you to remember Mr. Jones. 

(3) You can cause the remembering power to 
act; that is, remembering may be a voluntary act. 
You tried to remember Mr. Smith ; this shows it 
possible to cultivate the memory. 

27. Summary. — (1) The beginning is with the 
senses that receive impressions : these become sen- 
sations ; they are the effects of the outer world. 

(2) The mind by attending to these representa- 
tives or images of the qualities (the fragrance, the 
yellowness, etc.) incorporates them with its stock or 
materials already on hand. 

(3) It can bring them up before itself. 

Let the student illustrate each of these statements, 
giving original examples. 



QUESTIONS. 

Explain the effects produced by the orange on the senses. 
(Sec. 10.) 

Show the five ways the senses operate. (11.) 
Note the two stages. (12.) 



The Sensation Stage. 19 

Explain about impressions on the optic nerve. (13.) 
Explain about impressions and sensations. (14.) 
Explain the difference between sensation and impression. 

(IS-) 

What is the touch of the external world ? (16.) 

Can you compare sensations from different senses? (17.) 

(rive a summary of sensations. (18.) 

Give example of sensation. (19.) 

Show how attention selects. (20.) 

Give another example. (21.) 

Interest and attention. Explain. (22.) 

Give summary of attention. (23.) 

Exemplify the feeling side of the mind. (24.) 

Explain retention. (25.) 

Give three points relating to attention. (26.) 

Give summary of sensations and attentions. (27.) 



2o Elementary Psychology. 



THE PERCEPTION STAGE. 

28. Operations on Sensations.— What does the 
mind do with the sensations it experiences? You 
take up a hot coal; you have a sensation. You are 
conscious that the mind does not stop with the 
sensation, but that you attribute the heat to the 
coal ; you join the heat, the redness, the weight ; the 
term " hot coal " which you use is a name for a com- 
bination of several sensations. You passed from 
the sensation of heat to a knowledge of a thing ; 
this is perception. 

29. Sensations are United. — I put the orange 
before you again. You taste it, you smell of it, you 
notice the form and color you snap it with your 
fingers, you feel of its surface. You must have five 
sensations in your mind, and they are all different 
from each other : this is plain. But these five sensa- 
tions have evidently united themselves into one 
whole thing, which you term " the orange." We do 
not force the mind to unite them ; it does this in- 
voluntarily. It is the inborn way the mind has to 
act upon the sensations that enter it ; it does it of 
its own accord. If I give you an apple you will 
have five sensations, and your mind will unite the 
five sensations arising from the apple. 

It is as we see it in the physical world. Work- 
men bring bricks, stone, and mortar and cast them 



The Perception Stage. 21 

down in heaps; other workmen seize upon these 
and properly relate them, and a building is the 
result. We may compare the senses to the work- 
men who bring bricks and mortar; other mental 
powers are like those who join the bricks into a 
building. 

30. But the first step taken toward knowing the 
orange is the uniting of the five sensations that 
come from it. It is an attempt to gather fragments 
into wholes. (See sec. 7.) 

The mind is constantly gaining sensations ; they 
are representatives of the qualities of things brought 
before it. The mind also as constantly (of its own 
accord) proceeds to unite these. The first step in 
knowing is to unite sensations. 

We shall see further on that this uniting power 
of the mind is in ceaseless operation, and that it 
does more than to merely unite sensations, and that 
it goes on after it has united sensations. It goes on 
to cohere, according to mental law, all the materials 
that come within its reach, and the effect of this 
uniting, cohering, and conjoining operation is to 
cause an inherent coalition of the accumulations of 
the mind. 

31. The Joining of Sensations produces Per- 
cepts. — The smell of the orange, its feel, its taste, 
etc., did not stay separate in your mind. Your 
mind joined the fragrance, the roughness, and the 
taste, and you became conscious of an object from 
which they emanated, to which they belong. This 
process gave you a percept ; thus you perceived t\\z 



22 Elementary Psychology., 

orange. This operation upon sensations is called 
perception. It is the first step in knowing. The 
orange gave your mind sensations; your mind 
operated on them and gave you knowledge — some- 
thing your senses did not give you. 

When I obtain a sensation I find I at once try to 
find something to join it to. For example, in the 
dark I feel a smooth object. I crave knowledge. I 
want something to join this smoothness to ; I strike 
a light and see whiteness. I now perceive it is a 
piece of ivory. I had to have the sensation of 
whiteness that came through the eye to unite with 
that of smoothness that came through the hand, in 
order to enable me to perceive that the object be- 
fore me was ivory. 

This joining of sensations — do we will it, or is the 
joining automatic? It is plainly automatic. 

32. The youngest child at once enters on the 
mental occupation of perceiving. It takes hold of a 

* fruit ; it tastes it ; the two or more sensations that 
come from it fuse at once ; the child knows they 
belong to the object before it; it perceives. The 
mother says " apple; " this the child understands to 
be the name of its perception, of its knowledge ; it is 
the name of the thing that gives rise to the peculiar 
sensations it had. Thus it goes on day by day ; by 
his perceiving force he obtains percepts. By his re- 
membering power he holds his stock of percepts. 
This is the main business of childhood. 

33. A sensation is not allowed to stand alone ; it is 
quickly united with some other sensation. A per- 



The Perception Sta 23 

son has a sensation produced by a noise ; he sees a 
clock on the mantel, he refers the noise to the clock 
— he localizes it. He joins the sensation caused by 
the ticking to the sensation caused by the shape and 
color. He has made a percept — that is, he per- 
ceives the clock by doing this. The mental state 
has passed to a higher stage by the localizing or 
conjoining the sensation to the clock. 

The mind persists in turning its sensations into 
percepts and accumulating a stock of them. 

34. The stock of percepts that may be accumu- 
lated is very extensive. Of color we have percepts 
of red, blue, etc. Of surface we have percepts of 
smoothness, roughness, etc. Of sound we have per- 
cepts of loudness, etc. By effort we may acquire 
many degrees (probably 50) of the pitch of sounds 
in music. 

35. Mental Building with Images. — A repre- 
sentative, or image, as it may be called, of an orange 
may be joined to another or to something else. I 
put the orange on the table, and at the distance of 
one foot I place an apple. Close your eyes ; you 
have now an image of the orange and of the apple. 
Can you mentally put the image of the apple on the 
orange ? Yes. Close your eyes again. Can you 
place the orange on the apple? Yes. 

You can join the percepts that you have accumu- 
lated to construct something in accordance with 
some pattern or idea. You can put an eagle's head, 
on a man's body as the ancient Egyptians did ; or a 
man's head on a lion's body, as the Assyrians did. 



24 



Elementary Psychologv- 



If a sculptor, you can take clay and make it like a 
model's face, but put on a better nose than he has, 
You can build very incongruous things together, or 
things that have symmetry and beauty. 

36. This building up something in the mind out 
of the percepts it possesses is called " Imagination " 
it is the image-building power.* 

I put the orange on the table again ; tell me now, 
can you conceive of the yellow being a more golden 
yellow? Yes. You can build on that yellow in a 
variety of ways : you can make it a reddish yellow 
or a greenish yellow. You can change the shape 
of the fruit, making an ovate orange or a prolate 
orange. You can make it a large orange or a small 
orange. 

37. In the building or joining process (sec. 32) if 
the materials are jumbled together without regu- 



ft 


4go 




€1 


sfya 




# 




M 

%& 




» egg 



* These constructions might be called imaginafs. 



The Perception Stage. 25 

larity, we say it is a fanciful arrangement. The 
Japanese largely employ the fancy. If it is done 
with regularity and according to some pattern, we 
say it is a higher kind of building, and say it is the 
work of the imagination. The Greeks were noted 
for excellence in this higher composing of materials, 
This is true in music, painting, drawing, and writing. 




38. Percepts may be Retained as well as Sen- 
sations. — We retain percepts by the remembering 
power, so that they may be brought up in the mind ; 
as for example, the faces of our parents and friends, 
the house we live in. The tendency is to retain all 
percepts, but those that make the most impressions 
stay by us. We have representatives of a great 
many of the objects that we have become familiar 
with, and can recall them. You can bring up the 
representative of your room, of the front door of 
your house, of the portrait of General Washington. 

39. The power of making percepts wonderfully 
increases our mental stores. We started with sensa- 
tions. The uniting power of the mind gives us a 
stock of percepts. Notice that these sensations put 
together in a percept are not permanently joined. 
I can join the sensation of yellowness that came 



26 Elementary Psychology. 

from the orange to something else — to an apple, for 
example. The power to retain is applied to what 
the mind perceives and imagines, as well as what it 
retains through the senses. 

40. Association. — Let us keep before us the fact 
that our minds are full of percepts, that stand to us 
as representatives of the objects without us, and that 
they are held there by the remembering power. I 
put the plate and knife on the table, and reach my 
hand into the basket and pause. You are expecting 
I will take out something, are you not ? What is it ? 
" That you will take out an orange." 

It seems, then, that you have been joining or unit- 
ing the placing of the plate on the table and the 
placing of an orange on the plate. No sooner did I 
put the plate there than you expected the orange to 
be put on the plate. 

41. This connection of two mental states so that 
one brings up the other is called association {socins 
means companion). One mental state is accom- 
panied by its companion. If I had for several days 
divided oranges among the class at the close of the 
lesson, you would have expected the distribution ; 
that is, you would have joined or associated that act 
to the act of dismissing the class. The joining 
power of the mind operates in the way of making 
companions of percepts ; one percept brings up the 
other ; each is held by the remembering power, but 
to each is attached another by the associative power. 

42. It is clearly apparent that there is a power in 
the mind that forbids any sensation or percept to 



The Perception Stage. 27 

stay separate and alone. There is an unresting effort 
to unite the materials that are gathered. To associate 
mental materials is only one of the ways it disposes 
of them. The associative influence takes charge of 
our mental operations when we allow trains of 
thought to proceed of themselves. 

I sat down and looked at an orange ; then I 
thought of an orange-grove where I walked at Rock- 
ledge, Florida, and of picking the fruits, and of 
friends ; then of the Indian River there, of the boats 
on it, of Jupiter Lighthouse, Lake Worth, the cocoa- 
nut groves, of a friend met there who lived in New 
Jersey, then of his New Jersey home where I saw 
him, and of a great snow-storm there experienced. 

43. Let us look into this phase of mental activity 
just as we did into the attending and remembering 
activities. Did you force your mind to unite the two 
things— the placing a plate on the table and the 
taking of an orange from the basket? No, they 
united themselves. That is, association is involuntary 
uniting. But I can make my mind unite the date 
1492 with Columbus, so that while my mind has 
created in it the power of involuntary association, I 
can compel my mind to associate things. 

44. Trains of Thoughts. — By watching our men- 
tal operations we find that our mental stock is not 
resting, like bricks placed in a wall, but rolling on, 
like trains of cars ; they form into " trains of 
thought/' as it is called. As cars in a train are 
coupled together, so are thoughts in the mind. They 
rush along as people in a crowded street, and we be- 



2 8 Elementary Psychology. 

come tired of looking on and seeing these rapidly 
moving processions. People read books and news- 
papers so as to control the trains of thought. 

45. The connection of mental materials may be 
very loose, as in trains of thought (sec. 44), exempli- 
fied by the people passing by your window on the 
sidewalk of a crowded street ; or association may 
direct the connection and make it a little closer, as 
if the people came out of a church and those ac- 
quainted or related joined in groups ; or imagination 
may control, as if they formed in military order. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is done with the sensations ? (28.) 

Illustrate the union of sensations. (29.) 

What is the mental attempt in perception ? (30.) 

What is produced ? (31.) 

Explain about sensations not standing alone. (31.) 

What is understood by the term " apple " ? (32.) 

What will the mind do with its sensations? (33.) 

As to stock of percepts. (34.) 

Illustrate imagination. (35.) 

Illustrate further, (36.) 

Differentiate fancy and imagination. (37.) 

As to retention of percepts. (38.) 

As to increase of mental stock. (39.) 

Give example of association. (40.) 

What is association. (41.) 

As to junction of mental materials. (42.) 

Is association voluntary? (43.) 

Trains of thoughts. (44.) 

Different joinings of the mental stock. (4$.) 



The Conception Stage. 29 



THE CONCEPTION STAGE. 

46. Forming Concepts. — The first result of the 
effort for attaining a unity was a junction of the 
sensations that came from a single object — it was a 
sensation conjunction ; it gave percepts. The several 
sensations have been related ; a condensation has 
been effected, but a deeper unity is possible. 

You see several oranges. Each has color, form, 
fragrance, etc. After a time you feel there is lying 
back of all an idea of an orange, as you say. You 
can bring this idea of an orange into your mind as 
well as a percept of an orange. 

Note when I show you an orange, and then put it 
into a basket out of sight, and then ask you to recall 
it, and you do so, you have a percept to recall. 
What you recall is the representative of that orange. 
But this " idea" of an orange is different. 

47. I have a basket here, and talk to you of an 
orange there is in it. You form an " idea " of that 
orange in your mind. It is not a very definite one, 
however. How about its size? How about its 
color? The "idea" you have of an orange is a 
generalized orange ; it has yellowness ; it is round ; 
it is of the average size. This generalized orange is 
called a concept of an orange. 



30 Elementary Psychology. 

We form concepts of a man, of a horse, of a house, 
of the numerous things ; each concept has come from 
comparing several of one kind. The concept of a 
house has all the absolutely essential parts of a house 
— the general frame, the roof, doors, and windows. A 
concept is obtained by unifying the several percepts 
coming from several things of one sort, dropping all 
but the essential parts, and uniting them. 

48. Not only do we form concepts of things, as of 
an orange, but of the qualities also. For example, 
you have an concept of about the right amount of 
yellowness there should be in an orange. Out of a 
dozen of oranges you can pick out one that is more 
of a typical orange as to its color ; you can pick out 
out one that is most typical in its shape. You mean 
by this that these oranges agree as to yellowness and 
shape with your concept of an orange. 

49. When I show you an orange, and you say " It 
is a fine orange," you are talking concerning a per- 
cept produced by the united sensations arising from 
an object before you. But when you speak of an 
orange in a general way, as " The orange is a fine 
fruit/ 1 you are speaking of your concept. Suppose 
two persons discuss the orange. One says, " The 
orange is a handsome fruit." Another, "The orange 
is juicy." What was in their minds when the term 
u orange " was used ? It is quite different from the 
mental representative — the image present when an 
orange is in the hand. It is plain that parts of 
several percepts have been taken and joined, and 
something got that represents all of them. This 



The Conception Stage. 31 

something is not so vivid as the percept. One will 
say that it is " dim " or indistinct compared with the 
percept. This combination of the essential parts of 
several percepts is what is meant by a concept. 

50. It seems that my mental powers saw that 
there were like points or features in the several 
percepts of the orange, and it took these and com- 
bined or assimilated them. When I saw the orange 
for the first time I knew that as a distinct object — I 
had a percept or representative of that one orange. 
After I have seen several, I find I have something 
that stands for them in general. 

Suppose I put this figure on the blackboard, 

* Q 

* x and then this, o o 



© 



x and then this. ( | Now I erase them 




all, and you are presently asked, "What kind of 
figures were placed on the blackboard?" (Not 
what figures, but what kinds f) You reply by saying 



32 Elementary Psychology. 

S N 

this,j I v/ hich you give as showing the 



kind. It does not exactly represe#£ any one ; it 
gives features in which all agree. The general shape 
differs in some particulars from each figure that I 
gave, so the concept of the orange only deals with 
the general features. 

51. Concept -forming, or conception, discovers 
similarities and connects them. The combining- 
power, (see section 26) is here at work, but it 
works now on like parts of several percepts. In the 
case of the percept the combining-power put to- 
gether several sensations; the ground of joining 
them was that they arose from one object. The 
concept arising from seeing five oranges is formed 
by joining the similar things in each — the shape, the 
color, the form, the perfume, etc. The ground of 
joining them is in that they here form like functions. 

52, This power to form a concept of an orange or 
construct a something that is capable of representing 
all oranges, is capable of higher flights than seeing 
common features as a basis of unity in like things; 
the joining or combining effort is ever at work. It 
does not rest with finding similarities in several 
oranges, -and conjoining them, or conceiving them 
as conjoined. It passes on to conjoining similarities 



The Conception Stage. 33 

everywhere. For example : I show you an orange 
and a banana. You have knowledge that they both 
grow on trees, both have seeds, an outer skin, and 
both are edible. The common features are con- 
nected by you under the term " fruit. " There is no 
object by the name of " fruit ; " it is a term for a 
concept. 

53. This formation of concepts is a great feature 
in mental operations. There is comprehensiveness 
in a concept : thus we comprehend the banana and 
the orange when we call them both " fruit." To 
form the concept " fruit " we had to compare, and 
comparing things is the basis of thinking. So that 
there is much more intellect employed in concepting 
than in percepting. 

54. The concept-forming power is restless so long 
as it sees common features or common grounds. 
For example, it sees common features in the peach, 
the cherry, etc., and forms what the botanist calls 
a " Plum class ; " so it forms the " Spirae class/' 
the " Strawberry class," the " Rose class," the " Pear 
class," etc. Then it sees common features in these 
classes, and forms them into what the botanist calls 
the "Rosaceae" family. Having grouped all plants 
into families, it groups them into orders ; it goes on 
until it has got at the concept in the mind of the 
Creator, if possible. 

55. The concept-forming power is thus the classi- 
fying power, the power that forms classes ; this 
enables us to put our knowledge into a scientific 
form. As just shown, certain common features are 



34 Elementary Psychology. 

seen in certain plants, a concept is formed of a class, 
and so on until all plants are classified ; thus arises 
the Science of Botany. 

Thus all sciences arise. The thinking mind is not 
satisfied until it reduces all its knowledge to a scien- 
tific form. 

Concept terms are common. A vast number 
of the terms we use in speech are concepts. Take, 
for example, the terms soldier, sailor ? preacher, 
teacher, dude, hay-seed, color, weight, perfume, 
smooth, rough, good, cat, horse. Almost all names 
quickly pass from the percept to the concept state. 
But these concepts are not allowed to heap up ; the 
inherent coalition-forming power sorts them over, 
as just shown concerning plants, and unites them on 
still larger lines. 

QUESTIONS. 

Illustrate getting the " idea " of orange. (46.) 

How are concepts obtained? (47.) 

Other concepts. (48.) 

Differentiate concept from percept. (49.) 

Illustrate concept by figure. (50.) 

What is ground for the concept uniting? (51.) 

Illustrate other uniting attempted. (52.) 

What value in concept? (53.) 

How does it become the classifying power? (54.) 

How used in science ? (5$.) 

Give ten concept terms. (55.) 



The Thinking Stage. 35 



THE THINKING STAGE. 

56. Thinking. — We have just seen that the mind 
is perpetually busy with its mental stores : its sensa- 
tions are being turned into percepts ; concepts are 
being constructed ; and thus the stock of mental 
materials is put in order. 

In the preface it was pointed out that the inner — the 
mind's — world must represent the outer world ; now 
there is an interwoven relation between all the parts 
of the outer world, all having proceeded from one 
Creator. The mind has the power to unify and re- 
late the images that have resulted from the touch of 
the outer world. The unification is a conjoining 
operation, as seen in percepting and concepting. 

There are many ways of joining : two boards may 
be joined by nails, or by glue, or by dovetailing. 
There is need of a broader unity than has been 
reached by concepting. The concept is a conjunc- 
tion of like points in several things ; but there is 
a relationship existing to other things. The orange 
is related to the tree. The relating of our mental 
stock is done by thinking. Thinking is an attempt at 
a higher unity than is obtained by concept-making. 
57. I show you an orange ; you have a concept 
you term yellow. You relate the object and the 
concept, and say, " The orange is yellow." This is 3 



$6 Elementary Psychology. 

thought ; it is a statement of a relation the mind has 
perceived. We think to relate things ; by relating 
them we comprehend them. Thinking is arranging 
and relating our concepts ; it is done by statements. 

To see an object and to be told it is an orange is 
merely to name it. The mind seeks to comprehend 
this object. To do this I connect other knowledge 
to it. I connect the facts that it grows on a tree, 
has seeds, is good for food, etc. This is what is ef- 
fected by thinking. Thinking is a general name for 
sorting over, arranging, combining, and thus relating 
our mental stores. 

58. A mental process of joining two concepts is 
being carried on perpetually by the mind, and yields 
thoughts. A thought is a conclusion of the mind in 
which concepts are connected, one as a subject, the 
other as a predicate. Sometimes a percept and a 
concept are united, as, " This thread is strong." One 
concept and two concepts maybe united, as, "An 
orange is spherical and yellow ; " this gives a com- 
pound thought. 

It is well to bear in mind that when the orange 
is related to a concept, as in the statement " The 
orange is yellow," that it stands free to be united or 
related to other concepts. I can use the same con- 
cept " orange " at once with the concept " round," 
and say " The orange is round." In other words, the 
relating process of thinking does not put my mental 
stores into permanent combination. 

59. Thinking is an Automatic Process. — The 
teacher may say to the pupil " Think," — meaning 



The Thinking Stage. 37 

that the pupil shall sort over and unite some of the 
mental stock on hand. Some pupils are slow or 
lazy in the work of arranging and uniting their con- 
cepts, and need to be urged to take up the work. 
They prefer to let the trains of thought (see sec. 44) 
roll on with no effort on their part ; but under the 
influence of the teacher the attention is turned to 
some object. The pupil knows the object to be 
iron ; he knows what " heavy " means ; he handles 
the iron ; the process of relating the two concepts is 
done by his mind. In doing this he " thinks ; " 
i.e, he makes a statement, and says, " Iron is heavy ". 

60. Judgment. — Thinking is a general term ; 
there are many kinds. An arrangement of two con- 
cepts in a statement is termed a judgment ; it is a 
higher kind than forming percepts into concepts. 

For the practical business of life it is indispens- 
able to get our concepts into a unity ; we do this by 
judgments. Some join or unite much more readily 
and accurately than others ; they are said to have 
good judgments. Some observe quickly the 
color, size, fragrance, etc., that exist in a good 
orange ; that is, they form concepts of what the es- 
sential features in a good orange are. They com- 
pare the features of the orange before them with 
these concepts, and can say, " This is a good orange }* 
that is, they judge this is a good orange. 

61. As just said, there are various kinds of think- 
ing. There is thinking in concept-making, as wheni 
I join the similar things in several oranges and get: 
the concept I term " orange." It is a higher kind 



38 Flementary Psychology. 

that is employed in constructing the judgment — 
" The orange is a fruit ;" " The lion is a quadruped." 
As there are many kinds of moving one's self to- 
wards an object, as creeping, crawling, walking, 
running, leaping, etc., so there are many ways of 
thinking, that is, of joining or relating our mental 
store ; concept-making is one; next comes judging. 

62. Analytical Thinking. — Sometimes we sepa- 
rate a concept into parts. Thus I may ask you to 
separate your concept of orange into parts. (You 
will remember that the mind went on to unite like 
parts in its percepts to form its concepts. It is possible 
to reverse this process.) You will say, " The orange 
is yellow, is round, is fragrant, is sweet, gives out a 
dull sound, has a rough surface, grew on a tree, ,, etc. 
I may ask you to separate your concept of a man 
into parts. You will say, " Man is intelligent, rational, 
has a mortal body and an immortal mind," etc. 

This process is called analysis — it is analytical 
thinking. The object of it is to render the knowl- 
edge more clear and distinct. The teacher often 
causes the pupil to resort to it to see if his concept 
contains all the parts which belong to it. " Tell me 
about New York," he says. The pupil gives par- 
ticulars relating to the rivers, mountains, cities, prod- 
ucts, etc. If he omits the fact that the Catskill 
Mountains lie in the southeastern part, or that New 
York City is the metropolis, the teacher judges that 
his concept of New York is incomplete. 

63. Synthetical Thinking. — When I obtain anew 
percept concerning oranges, — for example, that one 



The Thinking Stage. 39 

was converted into marmalade, — by thinking I know 
that must be true of another, or all oranges. This 
is a different kind of thinking from the analytical ; 
it is of the synthetical kind. I know this orange 
may be made into a marmalade ; I say, " Another, in 
fact all oranges, may be made into marmalade. " I 
perceive a truth about one orange and predicate it 
about all oranges. A child sees snow and ice, sugar 
and salt, dissolve in water; he connects this result 
with some common element, as heat ; in doing this 
he thinks synthetically. A child who sees another 
man beside its father thinks synthetically if he terms 
the man a " papa ;" he classifies the man. 

Sir Isaac Newton formed a concept of a gravitat- 
ing influence in the earth to account for the falling 
of the apple. He went on to connect the moon 
with this influence. He saw the matter in the earth 
had an attractive influence on the matter in the 
apple. He /^//^/(synthetically), "The matter in 
the earth has an attractive influence on the moon, in 
fact on all bodies of matter.'' This is the kind em- 
ployed in invention and discovery ; it tends to make 
a unity in knowledge and leads to progress. 

64. Thinking in Syllogisms. — Sometimes two 
judgments are arranged so that a third judgment 
is reached as a conclusion. This is a syllogism : 

Heat expands all metals. 

lion is a metal. 

Heat expands iron. 
The first thought is called the " major (larger) prem- 
ise." The second, the " minor (lesser) premise/' 



40 Elementary Psychology. 

The third, the " conclusion/* This arrangement is 
often made in order to obtain clearness in thinking. 
The major premise has a general statement or 
thought ; the minor premise has a general statement 
or thought; the conclusion has a particular state- 
ment. 

The arranging of two judgments as above is a 
mental process called reasoning ; we reason in syllo- 
gism, or by syllogistic thinking. 

65. Thinking by Intuition. — I show a child (not 
too young) two points an inch or two apart, and say 
the " shortest distance between them is a straight 
line." He assents; that is, he sees this is a correct 
judgment. It is thinking by seeing into, by insight. 
Such a judgment is called intuition. There are 
many other judgments that are intuitive. " Things 
equal to the same thing are equal/' " Things that 
fill the same space are equal," are some of these." 

66. I show you a triangle and prove that the sum 
of its three angles is 180 degrees; you see at once 
the general truth, that the sum of the three angles 
in any triangle, in the moon, in Jupiter, in Saturn, 
is 180 degrees; in fact, that it is impossible to make 
a triangle the sum of whose angles shall be less or 
more than 180 degrees. 

67. You enter this room and see an orange on 
the table and prepare to make it your own ; you 
find an objection within to the proposition. The 
truth that it is wrong to appropriate another's pos- 
sessions is recognized, like the axiom calling the 
shortest distance between two points, as a general 



The Thinking Stage. 41 

truth. Your proposition to take the orange does 
not agree with this admitted judgment. In recog- 
nizing the general judgment and applying it the feel- 
ing side is much concerned. 

68. I place some oranges, perhaps still on the 
branch, before several persons ; one of them may 
take colors, a brush and canvas, and produce a 
charming picture — some particular form of beauty 
illustrated by the oranges. You conclude that the 
artist painted in accordance with an insight (in- 
tuition) he had of the beautiful ; the oranges ex- 
hibited to him had forms and colors that agreed with 
his insight; they embodied his ideal; he painted 
them to make a statement of what he conceived to 
be beautiful ; he used the oranges to illustrate his 
judgment. It is to be noted that there is much 
feeling in all art. (See 24.) 

69. I place an orange before you ; you know it has 
five qualities ; you are certain there is a substance in 
which these qualities unite, but you cannot by your 
senses get hold of the substance. You feel it to be 
necessary to fit the conditions of the things of the 
world in which you are that there be such a thing a-s 
substance. This conclusion you reach by intuitional 
thinking. 

70. You place an orange on the table ; it is gone 
when you return. You cannot be made to believe 
but some cause produced this effect ; because you 
have formed a general judgment that there must be 
a cause for every effect. You cannot see, feel, hear, 
taste, or smell causes ; you intuitively conclude that 



42 Elementary Psychology. 

there are causes for all effects. As in sec. 60, you 
feel it to be necessary to fit the condition of things 
that every effect have a cause. 

7l« The child is told that " there is a Creator.'' 
He assents, at first passively ; later on he intuitively 
sees that it is necessary to believe this statement. 

72. Intuitions (intuitional judgments) are marked 
by the quality just referred to ; there is a necessity 
for the conclusion. My senses give me five qualities 
in the orange ; I intuitionally judge a substance is 
necessary. I may have to prove that two triangles 
are equal ; but you demand no proof that a straight 
line is the shortest distance between two points ; you 
perceive intuitively that it must be. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is thinking ? (56.) 

Illustrate thinking. ($7.) 

What is a thought ? (58.) 

Thinking is automatic. (59.) 

Illustrate judgment. (60.) 

As to different kinds of thinking. (61.) 

Illustrate analytical thinking. (62.) 

Illustrate synthetical thinking. (63.) 

Illustrate syllogistic thinking. (64.) 

Illustrate intuitional thinking. (65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71.) 

Give one quality in an intuition. (72.) 



The Will. 43 



THE WILL. 

73. I place an apple and an orange on the table, 
and I say, " Take which you prefer." _ You take the 
orange. In doing this you employed your mind differ- 
ently than when you discovered the orange to have a 
sweet taste. When the mind joins the sensations that 
come in from the orange, obtaining a percept ; when 
it goes on to form a concept of an orange, or to 
think upon oranges, — it is using the knoiving faculties. 
In choosing and taking the orange it used the 
deciding or will power. 

It is plain in taking the orange that some knowl- 
edge must have prompted the choice of that. As 
the mind acts in choosing in accordance with the 
knowledge it has, we say " The will waits upon the 
intellect," that is, the intellect acts first. I have a 
feeling of hunger; I find my thought-trains are now 
loaded up with images of bread, oranges, etc. ; I 
remember the pleasing taste of the orange ; I decide 
to obtain that. 

Feeling — Knowledge— Will, all are united in this 
operation. 



44 Elementary Psychology. 



THE FEELINGS. 

74. I place some oranges on the table; you are 
conscious that you want one ; you have a conscious- 
ness that the orange stands in a different relation to 
you than when you contemplated it as an object of 
knowledge — when you thought about its size and 
color. It may be you are hungry — your desire for 
the orange would then be classed as an appetite ; or 
you wish to give it to your brother or sister — your 
desire for it would then be classed as a natural affec- 
tion ; or you may wish it as property — the feeling 
would then be classed as self-interested feeling; or 
you may wish to give it to a sick person — the desire 
would then be classed as a disinterested feeling. 

75. iEsthetic Feelings. — The orange may be 
looked at as an object of beauty ; it does not 
awaken an appetite at all ; it gives a feeling or 
emotion we call " love of the beautiful." Objects 
that arouse these feelings arouse the image-forming 
powers. The sunset, the moonlight, the tempest, 
the forest, the waterfall, start images that enhance 
the meaning they themselves possess. The poet 
hears voices in the breeze ; the artist sees pictures 
in the landscape. 

76. Scientific Emotions. — The orange may be 
looked at philosophically — that is, to obtain knowl- 



The Feelings. 45 

edge about it. The botanist takes a beautiful rose 
and pulls it to pieces ; he puts its organs under a 
microscope, and is filled with delight at his dis- 
coveries. The desire for truth impels men to make 
distant voyages, to ascend mountains, to labor with 
retorts and crucibles, with no expectation of reward, 
except the truth discovered. Those who search for 
the truth have deep feelings. Sir Isaac Newton saw 
that the result of the calculations he was making 
would establish a great truth, and was so overcome 
that he was obliged to ask a friend to complete 
them. 

77. Ethical Emotions. — Suppose you come into 
the room and find an orange on the table ; you 
desire it as property, and you take hold of it. You 
are conscious of a feeling that objects — you feel you 
ought not. A feeling is aroused because you have 
settled upon a rule of right-doing, of observing the 
rights of others ; the proposed act collides with the 
rule. This feeling is termed conscience. 

The scientific emotions impel to a search after 
truth; the aesthetic are gratified by the beautiful; 
the ethical, by what is right. The peculiarity of all 
these is that the true, the beautiful, and the right 
are the ends sought— they are ends in themselves. 
The artist does not paint the beautiful for money ; 
right is not done because it pays ; scientific dis- 
coveries are not made for profit. 

78. Natural and Cultivated Feelings. — The 
child naturally loves its parents, the parents the 
child. A man learns to love his country. A child 



46 Elementary Psychology. 

may cultivate a desire to be at the head of its class ; 
he may cultivate a prejudice against certain food or 
races of people, etc. An interest or feeling may be 
aroused in the mind towards many objects or 
exercises that is apparently artificial. Philanthropy 
and gratitude may be cultivated. So also may 
malevolence, readiness to anger, envy, jealousy, and 
suspicion. 

79. Feeling prompts Action. — You have a feel- 
ing of hunger ; you see the oranges — you attempt 
to possess them. The first inhabitants of the earth 
felt the cold and storm. This set their thinking- 
powers in operation ; they built houses. You desire 
to pursue some profitable life occupation ; you en- 
gage in study, or in learning some species of work. 
You know it is necessary to have a knowledge of 
arithmetic, and you at once become interested in the 
study of arithmetic. If you are a teacher, you will 
want your pupils to learn a lesson ; you will arouse 
an interest or feeling; the one who teaches must 
be able to create an interest. 

80. Feelings are Dependent on Knowledge. 
— You show me a chair. I have no interest ; but 
you tell me that it was the chair George Washing- 
ton sat in while President, and a deep t feeling is 
aroused. 



Notes. 47 



NOTES. 

8l. The sensations the five senses continually pour 
in upon the mind may be made objects of thought 
and may be measured with accuracy. You look at 
a chair, you press your fingers on silk, you snap the 
vibrant tumbler, you taste of tea or coffee, you smell 
of a rose ; the something that is left in the mind may 
become very definite if the mind makes it an object 
of much thought. 

The sense of touch may be greatly cultivated : an 
expert judges of the value of cloth, wool, etc., by 
passing his hand over them ; a blind man tests 
money by his fingers. While the taste is lower in 
rank, yet some persons become very skilful in 
estimating a quality by using the tongue. A skilled 
tea-taster will put tea in twenty cups, pour on 
boiling water, and be able to mark the value of each 
in money. Pouring these out he will test twenty 
more, and so on. He forms a concept of fifty-cent 
tea, thirty-cent tea, etc., and compares the sensation 
that enters his mind as he tastes each cup with that 
concept. 

The sensations that come through the eye are of 
the first rank, and are the most permanent. Those 
that come through the ear rank next. The number 
of sounds that may be recognized is very great. By 
attention to the sounds that objects make, as the 



48 Elementary Psychology. 

rustle of silk or of paper, the quality may be cor- 
rectly judged. The voice, a violin, a piano, when 
striking the same note may be distinguished. 

82. The Automatic Feature in Mental Opera- 
tions. — In the structure of the body we find many 
examples of automatic action. The stomach goes 
on to digest the food that enters it without the per- 
son making an effort. If an object comes near the 
eye, we wink without thus thinking it will save the 
eye from injury. 

83. Apperception. — The mental operation in the 
perception of the orange (see sec. 26) was spoken of as 
though it was a first perception ; but when you looked 
at the color of the orange you had seen other yellow 
objects, and you comprehended the yellow of the 
orange through the concept you had formed by see- 
ing them. You comprehended the juiciness of the 
orange because you had before tasted other juicy 
things. This past experience that we bring to bear 
on a sensation enables us to comprehend it in a 
larger way than if we had not had that experience. 

Suppose I show you a rose for the first time; the 
color and fragrance create sensations that are inter- 
preted in the light of sensations of color and fra- 
grance that have come from the pink, for example. 
Our conceptive and thinking powers give an enlarged 
scope to perception ; this broader perception is 
termed apperception. 

84. The child starts out in life with sensation- 
apprehending, with percept-making, with concept- 
forming, with concept-relating (judging), and with 



* Notes. 49 

judgment-combining powers. The first sensation 
sets the whole machinery in motion ; when it has 
another of the same kind it recognizes the likeness. 
Suppose it was a lump of sugar on the tongue ; if it 
sees another is offered it expects (thinks) this lump 
will produce the same pleasure as the other. Thus 
all of the acts of childhood, the experiments by im- 
pressing its teeth on a rubber ring, by striking a 
spoon on the plate, are directed by a mind that is 
percepting, concepting, and thinking about the re- 
sults. The child has the same mental machinery as 
the adult, but the adult has knowledge and ex- 
perience. 

85. The adult or older child interprets new sensa- 
tions in the light of its experience and knowledge. 
An orange is shown to an adult for the first time ; 
he proceeds "to find out " something about it, that 
is, to relate the sensation of taste with other sensa- 
tions of taste that have been experienced. The 
questions it asks are, Which does it resemble? 
Which does it differ from ? This connecting the 
sensation of taste with past sensations of taste is 
what is meant by apperceiving the sensation. 

The same operation is gone through with, with the 
perfume, the feel, the weight, and the color. Each 
of these is compared with other experiences of a 
similar kind ; thus they become known. To know 
a thing is to relate it to a previous experience so 
that we recognize it as like or unlike some of them. 
The child is apparently busy getting experiences, 
or materials for apperceiving at a later stage. 



50 Elementary Psychology. 

86. " Nothing new then can be a subject of knowl- 
edge until it is not merely mechanically associated 
as a passing breeze with the story which I read 
under a tree, but associated by a psychological pro- 
cess with something in the mind already stored up 
there, the new seeking among the old for something 
resembling itself, and not allowing the mind peace 
until such has been found, or until the new impres- 
sion has passed out of the consciousness/' — Rooper's 
Apperception. 

QUESTIONS. 

Illustrate the will. (73.) 

Illustrate the feelings. (74.) 

Illustrate aesthetic feelings. (75.) 

Illustrate scientific feelings. (76.) 

Illustrate ethical feelings. (77.) 

Illustrate natural and cultivated feelings. (78.) 

Relation between feeling and action. (79.) 

Relation between feeling and knowledge. (80.) 

What senses are most important. (80.) 

NOTES. 

Illustrate the measuring of sensations. (81.) 
Illustrate automatic operations. (82.) 
Illustrate apperception. (83.) 
Illustrate apperception in child. (84.) 
Illustrate apperception in adult. (85.) 
Give Rooper's idea. (86.) 



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Aliens Mind Studie s for Young Teach- 

ees. By Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor of the 
School Journal, Prof, of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of 
N. Y. 16mo, large, clear type, 128 pp. Cloth, 50 cents ; to 
teachers, 40 cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

There are many teachers who 
know little about psychology, 
and who desire to be better in- 
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Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor practical illustrations. It wiil 
of the Journal and institute. aid the teacher in his daily work 
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To most teachers psychology seems to be dry. This book shows 
how it may become the most interesting of all studies. It also 
shows how to begin the knowledge of self. " We cannot know 
in others what we do not first know in ourselves." This is the 
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appreciate this feature of " Mind Studies." 
ITS CONTENTS. 




CHAP. 

I. How to Study Mind. 
II. Some Facts in Mind Growth. 

III. Development. 

IV. Mind Incentives. 

V. A few Fundamental Principles 

Settled. 
VI. Temperaments. 
VII. Training of the Senses. 
VIII. Attention. 
IX. rerception. 
X. Abstraction. 

XI. Faculties used in Abstract 
Tb iu king. 



CHAP. 

XII. From the Subjective to the 
Conceptive. 

XIII. The Will. 

XIV. Diseases of the Will. 
XV. Kinds of Memory. 

XVI. The Sensibilities. 
XVII. Relation of the Sensibilities 

to the Will. 
XVIII. Training of the Sensibilities. 
XIX. Relation of the Sensibilities 
to Morality. 
XX. The Imagination. 
JSXL Imagination in its Maturity. 
TYft. Education of the Moral Sense. 



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Brownings Educational Theories. 

By Oscar Browning, M.A., of King's College, Cambridge, 

Eng. No. 8 of Reading Circle Library Series. Cloth, 16mo, 

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This work has been before the public some time, and for a 

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"Froebel," and the " American Common School." 

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS. 

I. Education among the Greeks— Music and Gymnastic Theo- 
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u The common existence of abnormal sense perception among school 
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" The Principles and Practice of Early and Infant School 
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by Clarence E. Meieney, A. M., Supt. Schools, Paterson, 
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WHY THIS BOOK IS VALUABLE. 

1. Pestalozzi gave New England its educational supremacy. 
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2. It is the work of one of the best expounders of Pes- 
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3. This volume is really a Manual of Principles of Teaching. 
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teaching cannot be learned empirically. That is, that one can- 
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4. It is a Manual of Practice in Teaching. 



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Fitch's Lectures on Teaching. 

Lectures on Teaching. By J. G. Fitch, M.A., one of Her 
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395 pp. Price, $1.25 ; to teachers, $1.00 ; by mail, postpaid; 

Mr. Fitch takes as his topic the application of principles to 
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No one who has read a single lecture by this eminent man 
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1. These lectures are highly prized in England. 

2. There is a valuable preface by Thos. Hunter, President 
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3. The volume has been at once adopted by several State 
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EXTRACT FRO:« AMERICAN PREFACE. 
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Virginia Educational Journal.—" He tells what he thinks so as tc 
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Lynn Evening Item.—" He gives admirable advice." 
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ume." 

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'debet. Autobiography of 



Materials to Aid a Comprehension of the Works op the 

Founder op the Kindergarten. 16mo, large, clear type, 

128 pp. Cloth, 16mo, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 

cents extra. 

This little volume will be welcomed by all who want to get a good 

Idea of Froebel and the kindergarten. 

This volume contains besides the 
autobiography — 

1. Important dates connected with 
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2. Froebel and the kindergarten 
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Payne. 

3. Froebel and his educational 
work. 

4. Froebel's educational views (a 
summary). 

In this volume the student of edu- 
cation will find materials for con- 
structing, in an intelligent manner, 
an estimate and comprehension of 
the kindergarten. The life of 
Froebel, mainly by his own hand, is 
very helpful. In this we see the 
working of his mind when a youth; 
he lets us see how he felt at being 
misunderstood, at being called a bad 
boy, and his pleasure when face to face with Nature. Gradually wt 
see there was crystallizing in him a comprehension of the means that 
would bring harmony and peace to the minds of young people. 

The analysis of the views of Froebel will be of great aid. We see 
that there was a deep philosophy in this plain German man ; he was 
studying out a plan by which the usually wasted years of young chil- 
dren could be made productive. The volume will be of great value not 
only to every kindergartner, but to all who wish to understand the 
philosophy of mental development. 

La. Journal of Education.— " An excellent little work." 
W. Va. School Journal.—" Will be of great value." 
Educational Courant, Ky.— " Ought to have a very extensive circulation 
among the teachers of the country." 
Educational Eecord, Can.—" Ought to be in the hands of every pio- 




Freidrioh Froebel. 



' Teachers will find in this a clear account of 



fessional teacher.' 1 

Western School Journal- 

Froebe^slife.' , 

School Education.—" Froebel tells his own story better than any com- 
mentator." 

all who wish to under 



Michigan Moderator.— " Will be of great value to i 
staud the philosophy of mental development." 



SEND ALL ORDERS TO 

18 E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 

Hughes' [Mistakes in Teaching . 

By James J. Hughes, Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Canada, 
Cloth, 16mo, 115 pp. Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; 
by mail, 5 cents extra. 

Thousands of copies of the old 
edition have been sold. The new 
edition is worth double the old; 
the material has been increased, 
restated, and greatly improved. 
Two new and important Chapters 
have been added on "Mistakes in 
Aims," and "Mistakes in Moral 
Training." Mr. Hughes says in his 
preface: "In issuing a revised edi- 
tion of this book, it seems htting to 
acknowledge gratefully the hearty 
appreciation that has been accorded 
it by American teachers. Realiz- 
ing as I do that its very large sale 
. indicates that it has been of service 
to many of my fellow- teachers, I 
i have recognized the duty of enlarg- 
ing and revising it so as to make it 
still more helpful in preventing 
James L. Hughes, Inspector of the common mistakes in teaching 
Schools, Toronto, Canada. an( j trainio^- " 

This is one of the six books recommended by the N. Y. State 
Department to teachers preparing for examination for State cer- 
tificates. 

CAUTION. 

Our new authorized copyright edition, entirely rewritten by 
the author, is the only one to buy. It is beautifully printed and 
handsomely bound. Get no other. 

CONTENTS OF OUR NEW EDITION. 

Chap. I. 7 Mistakes in Aim. 
Chap. II. 21 Mistakes in School Management. 
Chap. III. 24 Mistakes in Discipline. 
Chap. IV. 27 Mistakes in Method. 
Chap. V. 13 Mistakes in Moral Training. 
Chaps. L and V. are entirely new. 




SEND ALL ORtn&RS TO 

20 E L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YOBK & CHICAGO. 

Hughes Securing and Retaining Alien- 

Tiosr. By James L. Hughes, Inspector Schools, Toronto, 
Canada, author of " Mistakes in Teaching." Cloth, 116 pp. 
' Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

This valuable little book has already become widely known t© 
American teachers. Our new edition has been almost entirety 
re-written, and several new important chapters added. It is the 
only authorized copyright edition. Caution. — Buy no other. 

WHAT IT CONTAINS. 

I. General Principles; II. Kinds of Attention; III. Characteristics of Good 
Attention ; IV. Conditions of Attention ; V. Essential Characteristics of the 
Teacher in Securing and Retaining Attention; VI. How to Control a Class; 
VII. Methods of Stimulating and Controlling a Desire for Knowledge; VIII. 
How to Gratify and Develop the Desire for Mental Activity; IX. Distracting 
Attention; X. Training the Power of Attention; XI. General Suggestions 
regarding Attention. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

S. P. Bobbins, Pres. McGill Normal School, Montreal, Can., writes to Mr. 
Hughes: — "It is quite superfluous for me to say that your little books are 
admirable. I was yesterday authorized to put the 4 Attention ' on the list 
of books to be used in the Normal School next year. Crisp and attractive 
in style, and mighty by reason of its good, sound common-sense, it is a 
book that every teacher should know." 

Popular Educator (Boston):—" Mr. Hughes has embodied the best think- 
ing of tils life in these pages." 

Central School Journal (la.).— " Though published four or five years 
since, this book has steadily advanced in popularity." 

Educational Courant (Ky.).— "It is intensely practical. There isn't a 
mystical, muddy expression in the book." 

Educational Times (England).—" On an important subject, and admir- 
ably executed." 
School Guardian (England).—" We unhesitatingly recommend it." 
New England Journal of Education.—" The book is a guide and a 
manual of special value." 

New York School Journal.—" Every teacher would derive benefit from 
reading this volume." 

Chicago Educational Weekly.— " The teacher who aims at best suc« 
c -ps should study it." 

Phii. Teacher.—" Many who have spent months in the school-room would 
be benefited by it." 

Maryland School Journal.—" Always clear, never tedious." 

Va. Ed. Journal. — " Excellent hints as to securing attention." 

Ohio Educational Monthly.—" We advise readers to send for a copy." 

Pacific Home and School Journal.—" An excellent little manual." 

Prest. James H. Hoose, State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y., says:— 

" The book must prove of great benefit to the profession." 
Supt. A. W. Edson. Jersey City, N. J., says:—" A good treatise has long 

been needed, and Mr. Hughes has supplied the want." 



SENT) ALL ORDERS TO 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 



Reception Uay. 6 ${os. 

A collection of fresh and original dialogues, recitations, 
declamations, and short pieces for practical use in Public 
and Private Schools. Bound in handsome, new paper 
cover, 160 pages each, printed on laid paper. Price 30 
cents each ; to teachers, 24 cents ; by mail, 3 cents extra. 
The exercises in these books bear upon education ; have a 
relation to the school-room. 

1. The dialogues, recitations, 



^^^S^S^T^KSSSr^ dialogues, recitations, 

IlillfPlS fc? v|? f£^gl|K an( * declamations, gathered ii* 
^^^'!^*f^l3:|^^*|P^ this volume being fresh, short, 



:v easy to be comprehended and 
)|S|Or v V| a ^ are well fitted for the average 
'' scholars of our schools. 

2. They have mainly been 
used by teachers for actual 
school exercises. 

3. They cover a different 
ground from the speeches of 
Demosthenes and Cicero — 
which are unfitted for boys of 
twelve to sixteen years of age. 

4. They have some practical 
interest for those who use 
them. 

5. There is not a vicious 
sentence uttered. In some 
dialogue books profanity is 
found, or disobedience to 

new cover. parents encouraged, or lying 

laughed at. Let teachers look out for this. 

6. There is something for the youngest pupils. 

7. " Memorial Day Exercises " for Bryant, Garfield, Lincoln, 
etc., will be found. 

8. Several Tree Planting exercises are included. 

9. The exercises have relation to the school-room and bear 
upon education. 

10. An important point is the freshness of these pieces. 
Most of them were written expressly for this collection, and 
can be found nowhere else. 

Boston Journal of Education.— "Is of practical value." 
Detroit Free Press.—" Suitable for public and private schools." 
"Western Ed. Journal.—" A series of very good selections." 




•tf~? . 



£71^- 



SEND ALL ORDERS TO 






Si E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 
WHAT EACH NUMBER CONTAINS. $,3 



No. 1 

Is a specially fine number. One dia- 
logue in it, called " Work Conquers," 
for 11 girls and 6 boys, has been given 
hundreds of times, and is alone worth 
the price of the book. Then there 
are 21 other dialogues. 
29 Recitations. 
14 Declamations. 
17 Pieces for the Primary Class. 

No. 2 Contains 

29 Recitations. 
12 Declamations. 

17 Dialogues. 

24 Pieces for the Primary Class. 

And for Class Exercise as follows: 

The Bird's Party. 

Indian Names. 

Valedictory. 

Washington's Birthday. 

Garfield Memorial Day. 

Grant 

Whittier " rt 

Sigourney " " 

No. 3 Contains 

Fewer of the longer pieces and more 
of the shorter, as follows : 

18 Declamations. 
2\ Recitations. 
22 Dialogues. 

24 Pieces for the Primary Class. 
A Christmas Exercise. 
Opening Piece, and 
An Historical Celebration. 



No. 4- Contains 

Campbell Memorial Day. 
Longfellow ** ** 
Michael Angelo " ** 
Shakespeare " " 
Washington 44 M 
Christmas Exercise. 
Arbor Day " 
New Planting " 
Thanksgiving " 
Value of Knowledge Exercise. 
Also 8 other Dialogues. 
21 Recitations. 

23 Declamations. 

No. 5 Contains 

Browning Memorial Day. 
Autumn Exercise. 
Bryant Memorial Day. 
New Planting Exercise. 
Christmas Exercise. 
A Concert Exercise. 

24 Other Dialogues. 
16 Declamations, and 
36 Recitations. 

No. 6 Contains 
Spring; a flower exercise for very 

young pupils. 
Emerson Memorial Day. 
New Year's Day Exercise. 
Holmes' Memorial Day. 
Fourth of July Exercise. 
Shakespeare Memorial Day. 
Washington's Birthday Exercise. 
Also 6 other Dialogues. 
6 Declamations. 
41 Recitations. 

15 Recitations for the Primary Class. 
And 4 Songs. 



Our Reception Day Series is not sold largely by booksellers, 
who, if they do not keep it, try to have you buy something else 
similar, but not so good. Therefore send direct to the publishers, 
by mail, the price as above, in stamps or postal notes, and your 
order will be filled at once. Discount for quantities. 



SPECIAL OFFER. 

If ordered at one time, we will send postpaid the entire 
6 Nos. for $1.40. Note the reduction. m ^^sTrn^ 



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